- How did agriculture developed in the 11th century? What were the consequences
- Describe the main characteristics of medieval cities
- What were the relationship between the monarchs and the bourgeoisie in the High and Late Middle Ages?
- Explain the causes of the crisis of the 14th century
- Explain the consequences of the Black Death
- Describe the battle of Navas de Tolosa and explain its importance in history.
- How were the conquered territories resettled during the XIII century? Why was it different from the previous centuries?
- What were the Cortes? What were their functions?
- Explain the Irmandiño revolts in Galicia
- Describe the origins and ways of expansion of the Romanesque Art.
Romanesque was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe, from Sicily to Scandinavia. In the 10th century, the end of the great invasions allowed the economy to develop, the population to grow and churches to be constructed. New villages appeared in which churches were built and parishes established for the faithful.
The importance of religion during the Middle Ages had a strong influence on art. Therefore, architecture, painting and sculpture strongly depicted the glory of God.
In the 10th century, the following expressions of Christian devotion were considered very important in the development and expansion of Romanesque art throughout Europe:
- The cult of the relic (part of the body or object belonging to a saint), which were kept and venerated in churches.
- Pilgrimage routes to a sacred place, because Romanesque art initially developed along the routes.
Unlike small village churches, pilgrimage churches were larger in size in order to accommodate a large number of pilgrims. The most popular pilgrimages were to Santiago de Compostela, Jerusalem, where Jesus Christ had died, and Rome, where the tomb of St. Peter was located.
- Floor plant and side view of a Romanesque church
- Describe the main characteristics of the Romanesque painting
The functions of Romanesque painting were educational (to teach the faithful), moralising (helping people to distinguish right from wrong) and decorative (to cover the cold, stone walls).
Romanesque painting in general had certain common characteristics:
- It was technically very simple and had no depth, volume or perspective.
- Figures were usually uniform in colour, predominantly blue and red, with thick outlines.
- People were always forward-facing and stylised and were strongly anti-naturalistic and hieratic. However, they managed to express abstract ideas through symbolism.
- Scenes were adapted to the architectural framework. Characters were arranged hierarchically so that the more important ones were larger. There was little or no empty space (horror vacui).
The most common motifs were scenes from the Bible and the lives of saints. There were also representations of everyday life, but always with a moral content.
- Explain the meaning of the Pantocrator and the Theotokos
The pantocrator
Christ is depicted full length within an almond shape (called a mandorla). He is surrounded by the four evangelists (tetramorph). Each evangelist has a symbol: John, an eagle; Matthew an angel; Mark, a lion, and Luke, a bull. He blesses with his right hand while his left hand holds a book with the inscription: "I am the light of the world".
Theotokos
The Virgin is represented as the mother of God, seated on a throne with the infant Jesus on her knees. Both are facing forward.
- Explain the Fresco technique
The frescos were paintings that covered the walls and the apses of the churches. For colours, they used earth, mixed with egg or other natural glues. The technique used was very precise:
- The wall was prepared with layers of mortar and a thin layer of lime-based plaster on top.
- The artist drew an outline on parchment.
- Holes were made in the parchment along the outline of the drawing. The parchment was placed in the corresponding position on the wall and the artist blew soot through the holes, onto the plaster on the wall.
- Finally, pigments diluted in water were applied to the plaster. The plaster was sprinkled with water from time to time as it was not possible to use this technique on a dry wall.
- Name the three main styles of Romanesque architecture in Spain and name at least four churches of that era
Romanesque art spread throughout the Iberian Peninsula from the end of the 10th century and reached its peak in the 11th and 12th centuries. It extended from the Christian kingdoms in the north. The artistic influences of feudal Europe did not reach the Al-Andalus region in the south. It followed the Camino de Santiago and many churches and monasteries were built along the route.
Three distinct styles emerged from previous influences: Lombard, from northern Italy, French, from the Cluny monastic model, and Mudéjar, from Al-Andalus.
Lombard romanesque
This style can be seen in the north of Catalonia and Aragón. Notable examples include the monastery of Sant Pere de Rodes (Girona) and the church of San Clemente de Taüll (Lleida).
French romanesque:
Characteristic of most of the churches built along the Camino de Santiago: Cathedrals of Santiago de Compostela, Salamanca and Zamora; the Churches of San Isidoro (León), San Martin de Frómista (Palencia) and Santa María de Eunate (Navarre); and the Monasteries of San Juan de la Peña (Huesca) and Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos).
Mudéjar romanesque
Also called 'brick Romanesque', this style is found in Castile and León, Castile-La Mancha, Extremadura and Aragón. It is distinguished by the use of brick and walls featuring blind arcades. Examples: San Tirso de Sahagún (León)
- Name four examples of Romanesque sculpture and painting in Spain
Sculpture: main entrance of the monastery in Ripoll (Girona); the cloisters of Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos) and San Pedro de Huesca; the portico of the monastery church in Leyre (Navarre); the Portico of Glory and the Platerias façade of Santiago de Compostela Cathedral.
Painting: Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro (León),frescos of San Baudelio de Berlanga, and the altars from La Seu d'Urgel and Aviá in Catalonia.
